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This course provides a social, political and ecological history of South Asia during the early modern period, roughly from 1500 to 1800 CE. Patrons of the arts and sciences, the Mughals developed sophisticated cultural and political idioms, and a rich historiographical tradition. We will investigate these frameworks with which they sought to understand the diverse worlds of early modern South Asia. We will also study other internal and external actors (like the Marathas, Rajputs, French, Portuguese, and other European powers) that played an active role in the somewhat tumultuous stage of early modern India. By studying how the Mughals saw the world, and how the world saw the Mughals, we will develop a nuanced understanding of one of the richest and most powerful political formations in history, one which has been severely vilified and misunderstood in colonial and independent India. Topics include: the use of land and its ecological costs; the role of Sanskrit, Persian and of vernacular languages in the Mughal court; travels across the Indian Ocean, among others.