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This course explores the religious, political, and social upheavals that transformed Europe in the 16th century. Against the backdrop of the Renaissance and the spread of the printing press, deep conflicts over ritual practice, theological doctrine, and church structure both reflected and engendered societal tensions. These disputes did more than reshape religion¿they had a seminal effect on state formation, national identity, and emerging concepts of liberty and toleration. Readings will emphasize primary sources, including selections from Luther, Calvin, the radical reformers, and the Council of Trent.