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ENVRES 200: Sustaining Action: Research, Analysis and Writing for the Public (EARTHSYS 200)

Preference to graduate students and senior undergraduates in environmental, natural and social sciences, engineering, journalism. Students help produce and publish SAGE, an eco advice column, by choosing, researching, and answering questions about sustainable living submitted by Stanford alumni and the general public. Prerequisite: admission by application, available from instructor, thayden@stanford.edu, and due 9/21/11 (Aut) or 3/28/12 (Spr). (Meets Earth Systems WIM requirement).
Terms: Aut, Spr | Units: 3
Instructors: ; Hayden, T. (PI)

ENVRES 220: The Social Ocean: Ocean Conservation, Management, and Policy

This interdisciplinary seminar examines current ocean issues and ideas through a series of presentations and discussions with expert scientists and practitioners. Invited speakers will focus on both theoretical and practical aspects of ocean conservation, management, and policy with emphases first on the ocean as a component of coastal society, then on tangible conservation initiatives and actions, and finally on the big picture of ocean policy and politics. Although it is open to all undergraduate and graduate students, this seminar is designed especially for those with a particular interest in the diverse ocean field who wish to stay abreast of current and cutting-edge issues, ideas, and career paths.
Terms: Win | Units: 1-2 | Repeatable 5 times (up to 5 units total)

ENVRES 225: E-IPER Current Topics Seminar

For E-IPER Ph.D and Joint M.S. students only. Weekly presentations of E-IPER students' research and other program-related projects. Occasional guest speakers. Active participation including individual or team presentation and attendance required for credit. May be repeated once for credit.
Terms: Aut, Win, Spr | Units: 1 | Repeatable 2 times (up to 2 units total)
Instructors: ; Doyle, H. (PI)

ENVRES 270: Graduate Practicum in Environment and Resources

Opportunity for E-IPER students to pursue areas of specialization in an institutional setting such as a laboratory, clinic, research institute, governmental agency, non-governmental organization, or multilateral organization. Meets US CIS requirements for off-campus employment with endorsement from designated school official.
Terms: Aut, Win, Spr, Sum | Units: 1-9 | Repeatable for credit

ENVRES 277C: Specialized Writing and Reporting: Environmental Journalism (COMM 177C, COMM 277C)

(Graduate students register for COMM / ENVRES 277C.) Practical, collaborative, writing-intensive course in science-based environmental journalism. Science and journalism students learn how to identify and write engaging stories about environmental issues and science, how to assess the quality and relevance of environmental news, how to cover the environment and science beats effectively, and how to build bridges between the worlds of journalism and science. Limited enrollment: preference to journalism students and students in the natural and environmental sciences. Prerequisite: COMM 104, ENVRES 200 or consent of instructor. Admissions by application only, available from thayden@stanford.edu and due 3/28/12.
Terms: Spr | Units: 4-5
Instructors: ; Hayden, T. (PI)

ENVRES 290: Capstone Project Seminar in Environment and Resources

Required for E-IPER Joint M.S. students; optional for E-IPER Ph.D. students. Propose, conduct and publicly present final individual or team projects demonstrating the integration of professional (M.B.A., J.D., or M.D.) and M.S. in Environment and Resources degrees. Presentation and submission of final product required.
Terms: Aut, Spr | Units: 1-3 | Repeatable 2 times (up to 6 units total)

ENVRES 310: Environmental Forum Seminar

Required core course for first year E-IPER Ph.D. students and all Joint M.S. students, other than Joint M.B.A./M.S. students; optional for joint M.B.A./M.S. students and other graduate students with consent of instructor. Conceptual frameworks, analytical approaches, validity of conclusions from an interdisciplinary perspective. Participants attend various environmentally-focused seminars on campus selected by faculty and students, followed by student-facilitated discussions.
Terms: Aut | Units: 1-2
Instructors: ; Curran, L. (PI); Root, T. (PI)

ENVRES 315: Environmental Research Design Seminar

Required core course for first year E-IPER Ph.D. students; optional for Joint M.S. students; other graduate students with instructor's permission. Series of faculty presentations and student-led discussions on interdisciplinary research design as exemplars of the research design theories discussed in ENVRES 320. Designing Environmental Research. Topics parallel the ENVRES 320 syllabus. Corequisite: ENVRES 320.
Terms: Win | Units: 1-2
Instructors: ; Zhang, X. (PI)

ENVRES 320: Designing Environmental Research

Required core course restricted to first year E-IPER Ph.D. students. Research design options for causal inference in environmentally related research. Major philosophies of knowledge and how they relate to research objectives and design choices. Identification of critical elements within a broad range of research designs. Evaluation of the types of research questions for which different designs are suited, emphasizing fit between objectives, design, methods, and argument. Development of individual research design proposals, including description and justification understandable to a non-specialist.
Terms: Win | Units: 3-4
Instructors: ; Davis, J. (PI)

ENVRES 330: Research Approaches for Environmental Problem Solving

Required core course for first year E-IPER Ph.D. students. How to develop and implement interdisciplinary research in environment and resources. Assignments include development of research questions, a preliminary literature review, and a summer funding proposal. Course is structured on peer critique and student presentations of work in progress. Corequisite: ENVRES 398 with a faculty member chosen to explore a possible dissertation topic.
Terms: Spr | Units: 3

ENVRES 380: Collaborating with the Future: Launching Large Scale Sustainable Transformations (ME 380, PSYCH 380)

This project-based d.school class combines Design Thinking Processes, Behavioral Sciences, and elements of Diffusion Theory. Tools and theories introduced in class will be used to structure large-scale transformations that simultaneously create value on environmental, societal, and economic fronts. We encourage students to use this class as a launching pad for real initiatives. Primarily meant for Graduate Students. (Especially qualified/motivated Seniors will be considered). Admission to the class is through an application process which ends on March 3.nnPlease find instructions and applications at https://dschool.stanford.edu/groups/largetransformations/.
Terms: Spr | Units: 3-4

ENVRES 398: Directed Individual Study in Environment and Resources

Under supervision of an E-IPER affiliated faculty member on a subject of mutual interest. Joint M.S. students must submit an Independent Study Agreement for approval.
Terms: Aut, Win, Spr, Sum | Units: 1-9 | Repeatable for credit
Instructors: ; Ardoin, N. (PI); Arrigo, K. (PI); Arrow, K. (PI); Asner, G. (PI); Banerjee, B. (PI); Barnett, W. (PI); Barry, M. (PI); Benson, S. (PI); Billington, S. (PI); Bird, D. (PI); Bird, R. (PI); Block, B. (PI); Boehm, A. (PI); Boggs, C. (PI); Caers, J. (PI); Caldeira, K. (PI); Caldwell, M. (PI); Casciotti, K. (PI); Chamberlain, P. (PI); Christensen, S. (PI); Cohen, J. (PI); Criddle, C. (PI); Crowder, L. (PI); Curran, L. (PI); Daily, G. (PI); Davis, J. (PI); Diffenbaugh, N. (PI); Dirzo, R. (PI); Dunbar, R. (PI); Durham, W. (PI); Ehrlich, A. (PI); Ehrlich, P. (PI); Ernst, W. (PI); Falcon, W. (PI); Fendorf, S. (PI); Ferguson, J. (PI); Field, C. (PI); Fischer, M. (PI); Frank, Z. (PI); Freyberg, D. (PI); Fringer, O. (PI); Fukami, T. (PI); Gerritsen, M. (PI); Gorelick, S. (PI); Goulder, L. (PI); Granovetter, M. (PI); Hadly, E. (PI); Hayden, T. (PI); Heise, U. (PI); Heller, T. (PI); Hillmann, H. (PI); Irvine, D. (PI); Jacobson, M. (PI); Jones, J. (PI); Karl, T. (PI); Kennedy, D. (PI); Kennedy, J. (PI); Kieffel, H. (PI); Knight, R. (PI); Knutson, B. (PI); Koomey, J. (PI); Koseff, J. (PI); Kovscek, A. (PI); Lambin, E. (PI); Levitt, R. (PI); Lobell, D. (PI); Luthy, R. (PI); Martinez, J. (PI); Masters, G. (PI); Mastrandrea, M. (PI); Matson, P. (PI); McAdam, D. (PI); McDermott, M. (PI); McGehee, M. (PI); Meskell, L. (PI); Michalak, A. (PI); Micheli, F. (PI); Miller, G. (PI); Monismith, S. (PI); Mooney, H. (PI); Naylor, R. (PI); Ortolano, L. (PI); Palumbi, S. (PI); Plambeck, E. (PI); Powell, W. (PI); Rafinejad, D. (PI); Rajagopal, R. (PI); Reichelstein, S. (PI); Reicher, D. (PI); Root, T. (PI); Sapolsky, R. (PI); Satz, D. (PI); Schipper, L. (PI); Schoolnik, G. (PI); Sivas, D. (PI); Soule, S. (PI); Stedman, S. (PI); Sweeney, J. (PI); Swisher, J. (PI); Thompson, B. (PI); Tuljapurkar, S. (PI); Vitousek, P. (PI); Wara, M. (PI); Weinstein, J. (PI); Weyant, J. (PI); White, R. (PI); Wilcox, J. (PI); Wilcox, M. (PI); Zoback, M. (PI); Berg, S. (GP); Coughlan, S. (GP); Dufek, B. (GP); Lion-Transler, C. (GP)

ENVRES 399: Directed Research in Environment and Resources

For advanced graduate students. Under supervision of an E-IPER affiliated faculty member. Joint M.S. students must submit an Independent Study Agreement for approval.
Terms: Aut, Win, Spr, Sum | Units: 1-9 | Repeatable for credit
Instructors: ; Ardoin, N. (PI); Arrigo, K. (PI); Arrow, K. (PI); Asner, G. (PI); Banerjee, B. (PI); Barnett, W. (PI); Barry, M. (PI); Benson, S. (PI); Billington, S. (PI); Bird, D. (PI); Bird, R. (PI); Block, B. (PI); Boehm, A. (PI); Boggs, C. (PI); Brandt, A. (PI); Caers, J. (PI); Caldeira, K. (PI); Caldwell, M. (PI); Casciotti, K. (PI); Chamberlain, P. (PI); Christensen, S. (PI); Cohen, J. (PI); Criddle, C. (PI); Crowder, L. (PI); Curran, L. (PI); Daily, G. (PI); Davis, J. (PI); Diffenbaugh, N. (PI); Dirzo, R. (PI); Dunbar, R. (PI); Durham, W. (PI); Ehrlich, A. (PI); Ehrlich, P. (PI); Ernst, W. (PI); Falcon, W. (PI); Fendorf, S. (PI); Ferguson, J. (PI); Field, C. (PI); Fischer, M. (PI); Frank, Z. (PI); Freyberg, D. (PI); Fringer, O. (PI); Fukami, T. (PI); Gerritsen, M. (PI); Gorelick, S. (PI); Goulder, L. (PI); Granovetter, M. (PI); Hadly, E. (PI); Hayden, T. (PI); Heise, U. (PI); Heller, T. (PI); Hillmann, H. (PI); Irvine, D. (PI); Jacobson, M. (PI); Jones, J. (PI); Karl, T. (PI); Kennedy, D. (PI); Kennedy, J. (PI); Kieffel, H. (PI); Knutson, B. (PI); Koomey, J. (PI); Koseff, J. (PI); Kovscek, A. (PI); Lambin, E. (PI); Levitt, R. (PI); Lobell, D. (PI); Luthy, R. (PI); Martinez, J. (PI); Masters, G. (PI); Mastrandrea, M. (PI); Matson, P. (PI); McAdam, D. (PI); McDermott, M. (PI); McGehee, M. (PI); Meskell, L. (PI); Michalak, A. (PI); Micheli, F. (PI); Miller, G. (PI); Monismith, S. (PI); Mooney, H. (PI); Naylor, R. (PI); Ortolano, L. (PI); Palumbi, S. (PI); Plambeck, E. (PI); Powell, W. (PI); Rafinejad, D. (PI); Rajagopal, R. (PI); Reichelstein, S. (PI); Reicher, D. (PI); Root, T. (PI); Sapolsky, R. (PI); Satz, D. (PI); Schipper, L. (PI); Schoolnik, G. (PI); Sivas, D. (PI); Soule, S. (PI); Stedman, S. (PI); Sweeney, J. (PI); Thompson, B. (PI); Tuljapurkar, S. (PI); Vitousek, P. (PI); Wara, M. (PI); Weinstein, J. (PI); Weyant, J. (PI); White, R. (PI); Wilcox, J. (PI); Wilcox, M. (PI); Zoback, M. (PI); Berg, S. (GP); Coughlan, S. (GP); Lion-Transler, C. (GP)

ENVRES 410: Ph.D. Qualifying Tutorial

For Ph.D. students only. Under supervision of an E-IPER affiliated faculty member.
Terms: Aut, Win, Spr, Sum | Units: 1
Instructors: ; Ardoin, N. (PI); Arrigo, K. (PI); Arrow, K. (PI); Asner, G. (PI); Banerjee, B. (PI); Barnett, W. (PI); Barry, M. (PI); Benson, S. (PI); Billington, S. (PI); Bird, D. (PI); Bird, R. (PI); Block, B. (PI); Boehm, A. (PI); Boggs, C. (PI); Caers, J. (PI); Caldeira, K. (PI); Caldwell, M. (PI); Casciotti, K. (PI); Chamberlain, P. (PI); Christensen, S. (PI); Cohen, J. (PI); Criddle, C. (PI); Crowder, L. (PI); Curran, L. (PI); Daily, G. (PI); Davis, J. (PI); Diffenbaugh, N. (PI); Dirzo, R. (PI); Dunbar, R. (PI); Durham, W. (PI); Ehrlich, A. (PI); Ehrlich, P. (PI); Ernst, W. (PI); Falcon, W. (PI); Fendorf, S. (PI); Ferguson, J. (PI); Field, C. (PI); Fischer, M. (PI); Frank, Z. (PI); Freyberg, D. (PI); Fringer, O. (PI); Fukami, T. (PI); Gerritsen, M. (PI); Gorelick, S. (PI); Goulder, L. (PI); Granovetter, M. (PI); Hadly, E. (PI); Hayden, T. (PI); Heise, U. (PI); Heller, T. (PI); Hillmann, H. (PI); Irvine, D. (PI); Jacobson, M. (PI); Jones, J. (PI); Karl, T. (PI); Kennedy, D. (PI); Kennedy, J. (PI); Kieffel, H. (PI); Knutson, B. (PI); Koomey, J. (PI); Koseff, J. (PI); Kovscek, A. (PI); Lambin, E. (PI); Levitt, R. (PI); Luthy, R. (PI); Martinez, J. (PI); Masters, G. (PI); Mastrandrea, M. (PI); Matson, P. (PI); McAdam, D. (PI); McDermott, M. (PI); McGehee, M. (PI); Meskell, L. (PI); Michalak, A. (PI); Micheli, F. (PI); Miller, G. (PI); Monismith, S. (PI); Mooney, H. (PI); Naylor, R. (PI); Ortolano, L. (PI); Palumbi, S. (PI); Plambeck, E. (PI); Powell, W. (PI); Rafinejad, D. (PI); Reichelstein, S. (PI); Root, T. (PI); Sapolsky, R. (PI); Satz, D. (PI); Schipper, L. (PI); Schoolnik, G. (PI); Soule, S. (PI); Stedman, S. (PI); Sweeney, J. (PI); Thompson, B. (PI); Tuljapurkar, S. (PI); Vitousek, P. (PI); Wara, M. (PI); Weinstein, J. (PI); Weyant, J. (PI); White, R. (PI); Wilcox, J. (PI); Wilcox, M. (PI); Zoback, M. (PI); Berg, S. (GP); Coughlan, S. (GP); Lion-Transler, C. (GP)

ENVRES 538: Environmental Science for Managers and Policy Makers

(Same as LAW 608, OIT 538.) Fundamental science of ecosys-tems, climate and energy systems by building decision-support models for managing these systems, development of widely-applicable skills in model representation in a spreadsheet, optimi-zation, and Monte Carlo simulation. This course is open only to students in the E-IPER PhD program or Joint M.S. in Environment and Resources program and is required for Joint M.B.A. with M.S. in Environment and Resources students. ENVRES 538 does not assume knowledge of environment science or proficiency in quan-titative analysis beyond admission requirements for the MBA pro-gram. GSB students should register under OIT 538. GSB students students planning to apply to the E-IPER joint M.S. program should take either OIT 538 or 539 in their first year.
Terms: Win | Units: 4

ENVRES 539: Advanced Environmental Science for Managers and Policy Makers

(Same as LAW 619 and OIT 539.) Fundamental science of ecosys-tems, climate and energy. Spreadsheet modeling, optimization, and Monte Carlo simulation applied to resource management and envi-ronmental policy. Accelerated version of ENVRES 538 for stu-dents with background in modeling. Allocates more class time to environmental/energy science and implications for management and policy, and less class time to fundamentals of model-ing/optimization/simulation. This course is open only to students in the E-IPER Ph.D. program or Joint M.S. in Environment and Re-sources program. ENVRES 539 does not assume knowledge of environmental science or proficiency in quantitative analysis be-yond admission requirements for the MBA program. GSB students should register under OIT 539. GSB students planning to apply to the E-IPER joint M.S. program should take either OIT 538 or 539 in their first year.
Terms: Win | Units: 4

ENVRES 540: Environmental Science for Managers II

Introduction to renewable sources of electricity and fuel, and is required for Joint M.B.A. with M.S. in Environment and Resources students. GSB students should register under OIT 540. Students are strongly encouraged, but not required, to take OIT/ENVRES 538 or OIT/ENVRES 539 prior to taking this course.
Terms: Win | Units: 1

ENVRES 801: TGR Project

Terms: Aut, Win, Spr, Sum | Units: 0 | Repeatable for credit
Instructors: ; Ardoin, N. (PI); Arrigo, K. (PI); Arrow, K. (PI); Asner, G. (PI); Banerjee, B. (PI); Barnett, W. (PI); Barry, M. (PI); Benson, S. (PI); Billington, S. (PI); Bird, D. (PI); Bird, R. (PI); Block, B. (PI); Boehm, A. (PI); Boggs, C. (PI); Caers, J. (PI); Caldeira, K. (PI); Caldwell, M. (PI); Casciotti, K. (PI); Chamberlain, P. (PI); Christensen, S. (PI); Cohen, J. (PI); Criddle, C. (PI); Crowder, L. (PI); Curran, L. (PI); Daily, G. (PI); Davis, J. (PI); Diffenbaugh, N. (PI); Dirzo, R. (PI); Dunbar, R. (PI); Durham, W. (PI); Ehrlich, A. (PI); Ehrlich, P. (PI); Ernst, W. (PI); Falcon, W. (PI); Fendorf, S. (PI); Ferguson, J. (PI); Field, C. (PI); Fischer, M. (PI); Frank, Z. (PI); Freyberg, D. (PI); Fringer, O. (PI); Fukami, T. (PI); Gerritsen, M. (PI); Gorelick, S. (PI); Goulder, L. (PI); Granovetter, M. (PI); Hadly, E. (PI); Hayden, T. (PI); Heise, U. (PI); Heller, T. (PI); Hillmann, H. (PI); Irvine, D. (PI); Jacobson, M. (PI); Jones, J. (PI); Karl, T. (PI); Kennedy, D. (PI); Kennedy, J. (PI); Kieffel, H. (PI); Knutson, B. (PI); Koomey, J. (PI); Koseff, J. (PI); Kovscek, A. (PI); Lambin, E. (PI); Levitt, R. (PI); Lobell, D. (PI); Luthy, R. (PI); Martinez, J. (PI); Masters, G. (PI); Mastrandrea, M. (PI); Matson, P. (PI); McAdam, D. (PI); McDermott, M. (PI); McGehee, M. (PI); Meskell, L. (PI); Michalak, A. (PI); Micheli, F. (PI); Miller, G. (PI); Monismith, S. (PI); Mooney, H. (PI); Naylor, R. (PI); Ortolano, L. (PI); Palumbi, S. (PI); Plambeck, E. (PI); Powell, W. (PI); Rafinejad, D. (PI); Reichelstein, S. (PI); Root, T. (PI); Sapolsky, R. (PI); Satz, D. (PI); Schipper, L. (PI); Schoolnik, G. (PI); Soule, S. (PI); Stedman, S. (PI); Sweeney, J. (PI); Thompson, B. (PI); Tuljapurkar, S. (PI); Vitousek, P. (PI); Wara, M. (PI); Weinstein, J. (PI); Weyant, J. (PI); White, R. (PI); Wilcox, J. (PI); Wilcox, M. (PI); Zoback, M. (PI); Berg, S. (GP); Coughlan, S. (GP)

ENVRES 802: TGR Dissertation

Terms: Aut, Win, Spr, Sum | Units: 0 | Repeatable for credit
Instructors: ; Ardoin, N. (PI); Arrigo, K. (PI); Arrow, K. (PI); Asner, G. (PI); Banerjee, B. (PI); Barnett, W. (PI); Barry, M. (PI); Benson, S. (PI); Billington, S. (PI); Bird, D. (PI); Bird, R. (PI); Block, B. (PI); Boehm, A. (PI); Boggs, C. (PI); Caers, J. (PI); Caldeira, K. (PI); Caldwell, M. (PI); Casciotti, K. (PI); Chamberlain, P. (PI); Christensen, S. (PI); Cohen, J. (PI); Criddle, C. (PI); Crowder, L. (PI); Curran, L. (PI); Daily, G. (PI); Davis, J. (PI); Diffenbaugh, N. (PI); Dirzo, R. (PI); Dunbar, R. (PI); Durham, W. (PI); Ehrlich, A. (PI); Ehrlich, P. (PI); Ernst, W. (PI); Falcon, W. (PI); Fendorf, S. (PI); Ferguson, J. (PI); Field, C. (PI); Fischer, M. (PI); Frank, Z. (PI); Freyberg, D. (PI); Fringer, O. (PI); Fukami, T. (PI); Gerritsen, M. (PI); Gorelick, S. (PI); Goulder, L. (PI); Granovetter, M. (PI); Hadly, E. (PI); Hayden, T. (PI); Heise, U. (PI); Heller, T. (PI); Hillmann, H. (PI); Irvine, D. (PI); Jacobson, M. (PI); Jones, J. (PI); Karl, T. (PI); Kennedy, D. (PI); Kennedy, J. (PI); Kieffel, H. (PI); Knight, R. (PI); Knutson, B. (PI); Koomey, J. (PI); Koseff, J. (PI); Kovscek, A. (PI); Lambin, E. (PI); Levitt, R. (PI); Lobell, D. (PI); Luthy, R. (PI); Martinez, J. (PI); Masters, G. (PI); Mastrandrea, M. (PI); Matson, P. (PI); McAdam, D. (PI); McDermott, M. (PI); McGehee, M. (PI); Meskell, L. (PI); Michalak, A. (PI); Micheli, F. (PI); Miller, G. (PI); Monismith, S. (PI); Mooney, H. (PI); Naylor, R. (PI); Ortolano, L. (PI); Palumbi, S. (PI); Plambeck, E. (PI); Powell, W. (PI); Rafinejad, D. (PI); Reichelstein, S. (PI); Robinson, T. (PI); Root, T. (PI); Sapolsky, R. (PI); Satz, D. (PI); Schipper, L. (PI); Schoolnik, G. (PI); Soule, S. (PI); Stedman, S. (PI); Sweeney, J. (PI); Thompson, B. (PI); Tuljapurkar, S. (PI); Vitousek, P. (PI); Wara, M. (PI); Weinstein, J. (PI); Weyant, J. (PI); White, R. (PI); Wilcox, J. (PI); Wilcox, M. (PI); Zoback, M. (PI); Coughlan, S. (GP)

ENVRES 210: Communication and Leadership Skills (BIO 388)

Focus is on delivering information to policy makers and the lay public. How to speak to the media, Congress, and the general public; how to write op-eds and articles; how to package ideas including titles, abstracts, and CVs; how to survive peer review, the promotion process, and give a job talk; and how to be a responsible science advocate.
| Units: 2

ENVRES 215: Digital Storytelling for Researchers

A starting point in multimedia storytelling for graduate students who are actively involved in research. Students gain project-based experience in still photography, audio podcasting, online slideshows and web video production and editing, enabling them to record and report their own research stories from the lab and field. Enrollment limited, consent of the instructor required.
| Units: 1-3

ENVRES 260: Global Freshwater: Challenges and Opportunities

For graduate students interested in careers in advocacy, consulting, government, philanthropy and business. Challenges and opportunities in freshwater sustainability, accessibility, and use within the United States and globally. Demystifying the vast, complex landscape of the water sector. Weekly speakers on major freshwater challenges including climate change, agricultural expansion, urbanization, large scale contamination, ecosystem destruction. Discussion of a range of policy, market, technology, and regulatory solutions. Discussions supported by additional readings. 3 units with additional weekly paper submissions. Limited enrollment. Prerequisite: consent of instructor.
| Units: 2-3
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